Foreign Policy of the Single Party Period of Turkey ( 1923-1945)
Foreign
Policy of the Single Party Period (1923-1945)
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the Turkish Foreign Policy of the Single Party period and define this policy in three periods as, the Foreign Policy of Early Republican Period (1923-1932), the Foreign Policy of 1932-1938 and Post-Atatürk Period (1938-1945). The first step of study is defining the main principles of the Foreign Policy of the Single Party period. After that, text follows chronologic order. During these periods leader part was Republican People’s Party but state leaders were different. During 1923-1938, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the leader of the Turkish Republic and he ruled as president until his death in 1938. After that, Ismet İnönü was elected as president and ruled until 1950. In order to explain these two leader’s and the Republican People’s Party policies, books, archives, quotes, interviews and articles were used in this study. Therefore, this study was prepared with objective writing. There are not any subjective opinions about Foreign Policy of the Single Party Period. The main goals of this study are giving brief information to the reader, clarifying facts that shape foreign policy of the Single Party period and taking lessons from the past.
General Facts About the Foreign Policy of the Single Party Period
The foreign policy of the Turkish Republic during the single party period can be defined as peaceful, cooperative, realistic, rational and constructive. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk named the foreign policy as “Peace at home, peace in the world”. Therefore, state wanted to solve disagreements in international area, with peaceful policies. Because, the Turkish Republic was a new state, had to develop itself[1] and state concentrated on domestic problems rather than international problems. Mustafa Kemal stated that, “before anything, first, we must work for our people’s welfare within our national borders, then we can work in international area”. In international area, the Turkish Republic aimed at the preservation of the status quo and hard-won victory of 1923[2]. After the completely establishment of the state, the Turkish Republic took a place in international area with the other states.
Foreign Policy of the Single Party Period can be defined in three main stage as;
1) The Foreign Policy of Early Republican Period
2) The Foreign Policy of 1932-1938
3) Post-Atatürk Period
1)The Foreign Policy of Early Republican Period (1923-1932)
The foreign policy of this period was about national policy understanding and correspondingly about the Treaty of Lausanne. The Turkish Government worked to find solutions for some unsolved problems of this treaty. Apart from this treaty, government also worked for normalize the relations with greater states like the USSR, the United Kingdom etc. Government also followed cooperative policy with the states that have common borders. These are the basic principles of the Turkish Foreign Policy in Early Republican Period[3].
A) the Mosul Question and Relations with the United Kingdom
The Mosul Region(Iraq) was controlled by the Ottoman Empire until the end of the First World War. In 1916, The United Kingdom, Russia and France signed Sykes Picot Agreement gave Mosul to France in this agreement but in 1920 with the San Remo Conference, France and the United Kingdom agreed that, the Mosul Region was given to the United Kingdom’s mandatary regime in Iraq but before the San Remo Conference, allied forces signed the Armistice of Mudros with the Ottoman Empire. With this armistice, they got the right that, they could invade regions of the Ottoman Empire if there were dangerous activities for allied forces. On this basis, they invaded Mosul just three days after the Armistice of Mudros until 15th of November but after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Grand National Assembly was founded and this assembly accepted national oath and with this oath, wanted the Mosul Region in their borders. To solve this problem, delegates from the Grand National Assembly led by Ismet Inonu, started negotiations in Lausanne after their victory in the War of Independence but in the Treaty of Lausanne, neither the Turkish delegates nor the United Kingdom agreed on this issue. All these problems were the starting point of the Mosul Question and one of the biggest problem of the Turkish Republic[4].
The Turkish Republic and the United Kingdom started negotiations on May 1924 (Haliç Conference). The Turkish Republic represented by Ali Fethi Okyar. Fethi Okyar also supported Ismet Inonu’s ideas that defended in Lausanne. This conference was ended with the same results with Lausanne and states could not reach consensus and this subject carried to the League of Nations. Negotiations for the Mosul Question started on September 1924 and the Turkish Republic demanded voting in the Mosul Region but the United Kingdom rejected that idea. In British figures, there were 494,007 Kurds, 166,941 Arabs, 61,336 Christians, 38,652 Turks, 26,257 Yezidis and 11,897 Jews, in total 799,090 but in Turkish figures there were 263,830 Kurds, 43,210 Arabs, 21,000 Christians, 146,960 Turks, 18,000 Yezidis and 11,000 Jews, in total 503,000[5]. For reaching a consensus, a commission was established and this commission was represented by the state delegates that had objective standing against the Mosul Question lead this commission. These delegates were Pal Teleki from Hungary, A. Wirsen from Sweden and Colonel Poulis from Belgium and this commission drew line between Hakkari and Mosul called Brussels Line[6] and commission accepted Mosul as Iraq territory. The Turkish Republic left Mosul in December 1925 and as a result the Turkish Republic and the United Kingdom signed Ankara Agreement in 1926.
All these facts effected Turkish-English relations in negative way. There was war threat among these two states during the Mosul Question but economic problems, domestic problems and tiredness of old wars discouraged them to start military operations.
B) Turkish – Greek Relations and Population Exchange
Since 1789, Greeks had defended “Megali Idea”. Especially after they became independent state in 1830, they joined military actions against the Ottoman Empire. After the First World War, Greeks invaded Western Anatolia. This means Turkish and Greek relations were tense in that period. As a result of these wars, Greece lost manpower in Anatolian lands and to compensate this, Greeks demanded the Greek population that live within the borders of Anatolia.
After the War of Independence, negotiations started in Lausanne between Allied Powers and the Grand National Assembly. As a decision between Greek government and the Grand National Assembly in 1923, they accepted that, Rums that were living in Anatolia exchanged with Turks that were living in Greek Lands. It affected more than 1.5 million people[7]. Greek Government changed their policy about population exchange to left more people in Istanbul. Thereupon, the Turkish Government deported the patriarch of orthodox people. A new problem started between Turks and Greeks as a result of this response, but it was solved with the resign of the patriarch in 1925. With continuing negotiations between the Turkish and Greek Governments, on December 1926, Athens Agreement was signed and population exchange was made between two states but all problems was solved in 1930 with the Treaty of Ankara.[8]
After population exchange, the prime minister of Greece, Eleftherios Venizelos visited Turkey to normalize relations among two states and normalized relations continued until Cyprus Problem.
C) Turkish – Soviet Relations
The Russian Empire saw The Ottoman Empire as an enemy because of religious and geographical reasons and these two states fought each other but after the Bolshevik Revolution[9] and Russian Civil War, new state was founded called the Soviet Union under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin officially in 1922 and new state adopted friendly policy with the Turkish Republic. Moreover, the Soviet Union supported Turkish movement in the War of Independence.
On December 16th, 1925 , the League Nations supported the United Kingdom in the Mosul Question and the Turkish Republic decided to make a politic attack against the League of Nations’ decision and one day after, Non-aggression and Neutrality Pact signed between Turkish minister of foreign affairs Tevfik Rüştü Aras and his counterpart Georgy Chicherin[10] and this pact accepted in Turkish Grand National Assembly on December 22th ,1925. On December 1926, President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk stated that, “Turkish-Soviet Non-aggression and Neutrality Pact was only the beginning of Turkish – Soviet friendship and our next step is making strong alliance.[11]”
On March 11th, 1927, Turkish-Soviet Trade Agreement was signed in Ankara. With this agreement, the Soviet Union opened trade representatives in Istanbul, Izmir, Mersin, Erzurum, Trabzon and Konya. On the other hand, because of economic depressions, this agreement cancelled occasionally[12].
D) Turkish-French Relations
France was one of the enemies of the Turkish National Movement during the War of Independence but after the victory of the Turkish National Movement in First and Second Battle of Inönü, the French Government changed attitude about Turkish National Movement and also their aims on Anatolia. As from March 1921, the French governments started constructive negotiations with Turkish side. On June 9th ,1921, the French Government sent Henry-Franklin Boullion[13] to Ankara as a representative. In Ankara, Henry-Franklin Boullion, Mustafa Kemal, Fevzi Çakmak and Yusuf Kemal(Tengirşenk)[14] entered into negotiations[15]. In her article, Dr. Hülya Baykal stated that, Mustafa Kemal was non- compromise about national oath (Misak-ı Milli) but Henry-Franklin Boullion accepted the Treaty of Sevres and wanted to force the Turkish National Movement to sign this treaty. As a result of this disagreement, positive relations relations among Turkish and French side were broken. After this disagreement, the French Government decided to wait for new Greek attack on Turkish side but Turkish forces defeated Greek forces in Sakarya and the French Government restarted the negotiations with Turkish side and on October 20th, 1921, the Treaty of Ankara signed between Henry-Franklin Boullion and Yusuf Kemal(Tengirşenk). This treaty determined Southern Anatolia borders (not Hatay) and with this treaty, France gave up privileges that gained during the Ottoman Empire reign[16]. Moreover, France became the first “allied” state that legitimize the Turkish Grand National Assembly Government. Nevertheless, these positive relations became reversed after the Treaty of Lausanne because of the problems about determination of Syrian border and situation of French Schools.
In the Treaty of Ankara (1921) the French Government and the Turkish Government decided to establish a commission for determining borders between Syria and Turkey. Nevertheless, this commission established on September 1925 and negotiations ended in 1930. In respect to third article of the Treaty of Ankara, the border will be drawn with starting from Gulf of Alexandretta to Meydan-ı Ekbez. Then, Kilis will be given to Turkey. Furthermore, the Tomb of Suleyman Shah, who was the grandfather of Sultan Osman[17], will became Turkish land but will stayed within the Syrian borders[18].
Other problem between Turkey and France was about situation of the missionary schools of France that exist in Turkish lands. In 1924, Turkish Government declared law of Tevhid-i Tedrisat. It means the unification of education within the borders of Turkey. The Turkish Government wanted to gather all schools, under the control of Ministry of Education. On the other hand, other countries, but especially France, were against this law but the Turkish Government solved this problem easily.
The last problem between France and Turkey was about debts that coming from the Ottoman Empire because of the Industrial Revolution, national rebellions and wars, economy of the Ottoman Empire was collapsing. Until 1914, the Ottoman Empire took loans 41 times with higher interest rates and external rate became 104 million and 212 thousand Ottoman Liras. Debt service was 13 million Ottoman Liras and the budget of the empire was 30 million in this year. Therefore, debt service was %43 of the budget[19]. These loans were taken from Western European states. Moreover, the Ottoman Empire took loans from Germany to prepare war and the empire took 150 million Ottoman Liras after 1914, from Germany[20]. These debts were the worst legacy of the empire to the republic. While negotiations in Lausanne, Turkish delegation persuaded other states for separation of debts among the nations of the Ottoman Empire. This problem completely solved on June 13th, 1928 with the Treaty of Paris. States prepared a schedule for the payments, the Turkish Republic repaid nearly 85 million liras and the republic completed this repayment in 1954[21].
The last contact between Turkey and France was sale of Adana-Mersin railway to the Turkish State on June 1929[22].
E) Relations with the Islamic World
The Turkish Republic’s mentality was different from the Ottoman Empire. The new state wanted to cut the links between Eastern World and tried to be westernized. This mentality had effects on relations with Arabic world. Especially “nationalist ideology” of the state, severed the ties between Arabs and Turks (Ass. Dr. Hasan Duran). Therefore, there was not special interest about Arabic World during 1923-1932. On the other hand, the Turkish Republic wanted to develop relations with some Islamic countries like Iran and Afghanistan.
During the War of Independence (of Turkey), at the same time, Afghanistan was at war with the United Kingdom for their independence because in 1914, Habibullah Khan negotiated with the United Kingdom that, if Afghanistan remained neutral in the World War, the United Kingdom will legitimize their independence. Thereupon, Afghanistan rejected the call of caliphate Sultan V.Mehmed[23] and remained neutral as they promised but even though, the United Kingdom did not legitimize their independence but in 1919, with the Treaty of Rawalpindi, Afghanistan became independent. Therefore, both Turks and Afghans at war against the United Kingdom and this struggle was the beginning of convergence between Turks and Afghans. According to this convergence, in 1921, the Treaty of Friendship signed between Turks and Afghans. For Turkish side, Yusuf Kemal (Minister of Economics); for Afghan side, General Mehmet Veli Khan signed this treaty and Afghanistan became the first Islamic state that legitimize the Government of Turkish Grand National Assembly. Moreover, in 1928, King Emanullah Khan visited Turkey, both countries signed new treaties and the Turkish Republic sent numerous experts to Afghanistan for helping them to develop their state[24].
In 1920, Turks were at war against Greeks (supported by the United Kingdom). The biggest supporters of Turks were Indian Muslims in this war and their supportive policy also affected the visions of other Islamic states. Turkish side wanted to use this situation in their favour and adopted friendly policy with Iran. In 1921, Mustafa Kemal stated that, “Teheran Government declared us as an ally against the whole pressures of the United Kingdom”[25]. In 1925, Reza Pahlavi became the Shah of Iran[26]. Normally, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was secular and modernist and because of these mentalities, he decided to cut the ties with the East but Shah Reza Pahlavi also had same mentalities with Atatürk. As a consequence, both states signed Treaty of Friendship in 1932. With this treaty, both states solved geographical problems between themselves and developed their relations.
2) The Foreign Policy of 1932-1938
Before this period, the Turkish Republic solved all the problems about the Treaty of Lausanne and completed the establishment of the state. In this period, the Turkish Republic was more active in international area. After the Great Depression[27] in 1929, alignments started between states and states divided in two groups as;
states that wanted to change status quo after the First World War called “revisionists” and
states that wanted to protect status quo called “anti-revisionists” (Ahmet Mehmetefendioğlu). In this division, the Turkish Republic was in anti-revisionist side. Besides after the Great Depression, liberal policies lost power and regimes like fascism, nazism got power. In Italy, fascist dictator Benito Mussolini became leader and in Germany, Nazi Party leader Hitler became ruler and both states adopted expansionist policies[28]. As result of these policies, the Turkish Republic followed peaceful policies and tried to make agreements with other states for precaution and cooperation.
A) Entry of the Turkish Republic into the League of Nations
In 1917, President Woodrow Wilson mentioned the necessity of peace community. According to Wilson, balance of power system caused the World War, because of it, world needed collective security system and only collective security could protect world from war danger (Mckay 1987). On January 18th, 1919, Paris Peace Conference started. With the pressures of the USA and the UK, a commission established to make a constitution for the League of Nations[29]. On April 28th, 1919, delegates of the conference reached consensus and accepted constitution. In the first meeting of the League of Nations, 42 states were represented by delegates (O’Callaghan and Griffiths 2002).
The Turkish Republic entered this league in 1932 with invitations of Spain and Greece. It was very remarkable situation because in 1923, while negotiations of Lausanne, Ismet Pasha (Inonu) sent a telegraph to Ankara and said, “Turkey must be ready for the invitation of the United Kingdom. They will invite us to the League of Nations”[30]. However, the United Kingdom had different opinion about that. They wanted to end the Mosul Question for their convenience and without support of the League of Nations on Turkey, the United Kingdom could easily solve this problem. After the Mosul Question, everything was ready for the Turkish entrance to the league but in that point, the Soviet Union protested this entrance because, they thought that, if Turkey enter the League of Nations, they will only be in relations with western states but this problem also solved with the Soviet Union’s entry to the League of Nations in 1934, just two years after Turkey[31].
B) Relations with the Balkan States and the Balkan Entente
The Turkish Republic signed several agreements with Balkan states. For example;
on December 15, 1923 with Albania, on October 18, 1925 with Bulgaria, on October 25, 1925 with Yugoslavia. These agreements proved us the peace policy of Turkey. Besides, the Turkish Republic improved relations with it’s old rival Greece, especially in 1930. As a result of this positive atmosphere, both states signed the Friendship and Border Security Agreement in 1933. Although this positive atmosphere between the Turkish Republic and Balkan states, on the other hand in Europe, fascist policies were appearing under the leadership of Benito Mussolini (Italy) and in Germany, Nazi Party got the control of the state and the leader of this party was Adolf Hitler[32]. These two leaders followed expansionist policies against other states and this danger, push the Balkan states and Turkey for signing Balkan Entente because, they thought, they could only survive with cooperation. Balkan Entente and its Additional Protocol, initialized on February 4, 1934 in Geneva and signed in Athens on February 9, 1934 (Assoc. Prof. Dr. Esra S. DEGERLI). This entente was signed between Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania[33]. This pact aimed at continuing land order in the Balkans and secured the borders. According to the pact, Balkan States were going to take action for the Balkan States which entered the war, if these four Balkan States were attacked by a state or states other than Balkans (Soysal 1989,459). Nevertheless, the Balkan Entente could not prevent the Italian expansionary policy through the Balkans and invasion of Poland by Third Reich[34] because none of the states had power to stop these invasions. Even though, the Prime Minister Ismet Inönü and the Minister of Foreign Affairs Tevfik Rüştü Aras visited the Balkan states, they could not save the entente.
C) The Saadabad Pact and Relations with the Islamic States
The other notable achievements in international affairs followed. In 1937, the Turkish Republic joined to the Saadabad Pact. The other participants were Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq. Turkey became a bridge between Asia and Europe[35]. This pact was similar with the Balkan Entente. It was hard to accept the Turkish Republic as a friendly country for the Eastern States because, they lived as vassals of the Ottoman Empire for many years and moreover, the Turkish Republic adopted secularist policies and Muslim states saw secularization as “attacking on Islam”[36]. Therefore, secularist policies of the Single Party Period, separated Turks and Arabic States but after Afghan-Turk rapprochement and friendly policies between Shah Emanullah Khan and Mustafa Kemal were signs of good relations between Arabic World. During the 1932-1938 period, the Turkish Republic signed two cooperation agreements with Iran (1932, 1937), three cooperation agreements with Iraq (1926,1932,1936) and one cooperation agreement with Egypt in 1937 (Ahmet Mehmetefendioğlu 2018). These good relations crowned with the Saadabad Pact. This pact accepted by the Turkish Grand National Assembly in 1938. With the Balkan Entente and the Saadabad Pact, eastern and western borders of the Turkish Republic were protected. However, this pact also dissolved because of the Second World War like the Balkan Entente[37].
D) Montreux Convention
The straits helped the Ottoman Empire to expand empire’s borders through the other continents. However, with the decline of empire, the straits became weakness of empire because, after the 18th century, the straits became target of the Western European States. However, in the north, Russia became strong state and demanded privileges from the Ottoman Empire about the straits. In 1809, with the Treaty of Kale-i Sultaniye, the straits were closed for all battleships but starting from this treaty, many agreements were signed about the straits like, 1833 Hünkar Iskelesi, 1841 London Conference, 1856 Paris and 1871 London[38]. As a result of these treaties, the straits were closed for all battleships but merchant ships could use the straits. States reached consensus about this law and it was accepted but this law was ended with the First World War because, two German battleships called Goeben (Yavuz) and Breslau (Midilli) passed the straits and attacked Sevastopol and bombed Russian lands[39]. After that, in 1917, the United States of America joined the war and in 1918, President Woodrow Wilson declared “fourteen points” and his fourteen points were accepted by the states. On October 30th, 1918, the Armistice of Mudros signed among the Ottoman Empire and Allied Powers. With this armistice, the Ottoman Empire accepted that, the straits became open for all states and Allied Powers got control on straits until the negotiations of Lausanne.
During the negotiations of Lausanne, there were three opinions about the straits;
Opinion of the Allied Powers: the straits must be opened for all battleships and merchant ships but the straits became demilitarized and controlled by international company.
Opinion of Russians: the straits must be opened only for merchant ships not for battleships and Turkish side would strengthened the straits.
Opinion of Turkish side: Passing from the straits must be free for all states only if the security of Marmara region was provided[40].
The Treaty of Lausanne was signed in order to opinion of the Allied Powers but in 1935, during the League of Nations meeting, Turkish side uttered apprehensions about demilitarization of the straits and Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs Tevfik Rüştü Aras demanded cancellation of demilitarization specification. Efforts of Tevfik Rüştü Aras were supported by the Soviet Union and Greece. After that, in 1936, the Turkish Republic persuaded the other states for changing about status of the straits and the Montreux Convention started on June 22th, 1936 and signed on July 20th between the Turkish Republic, the Soviet Union, Japan, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, France, Bulgaria and the United Kingdom. The Turkish Republic gained dominance on the straits and also gained prestige on international area. Although the Montreux Convention helped the Turkish Republic to normalize relations with the United Kingdom, negatively affected relations with the Soviet Union[41].
E) Relations with the United Kingdom and the Mediterranean Pact
During 1923-1932 period, relations of the Turkish Republic with the United Kingdom were negative because of the Mosul Question but after resolution of the Mosul Question and especially after 1932, the Turkish Republic adopted cooperative and friendly policies with the other states, particularly with the United Kingdom[42]. Besides that, Fascist Italy attacked Ethiopia in 1935 and this fact also developed relations between the Turkish Republic and the United Kingdom and in 1936, the Mediterranean Pact signed between the Turkish Republic, Greece, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia. This pact was signed against aggressive policy of Italy[43]. The United Kingdom gave cooperation guarantee for possible Italian invasion. Normally, Spain was also called this pact but there was a civil war in Spain in this period and as a result of this civil war, Francisco Franco elected as generalissimo and Spain adopted friendly policies with Nazi Party and Fascist Italy.[44]
Another positive fact between the Turkish Republic and the United Kingdom was visitation of King Edward VIII. In 1936, the king visited Istanbul to improve relations with the Turkish Republic. According to Erik Göldstein’s classification, although visitation of King Edward VIII did not formal, it was recorded as reconciliation visiting between rival states.
F) Relations with Germany
Germany was an ally of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. In other words, losing side. After the war, Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles with Allied Powers and because of this treaty, Germany could not make close relations with other states[45]. For this reason, although Germany was an ally of Turks during the First World War, relations among Germany and the Turkish Republic were exist in low level. Nonetheless, in 1933, Nazi Party got the power in Germany and improved political and economic power of Germany. With these improvements, Germany turned back to international area and relations between the Turkish Republic started after the 1930 as economic relations because, the Turkish Republic adopted First Five Year Plan and needed industrial equipment. Therefore, political convergence started between Germany and the Turkish Republic because of the economic necessities. In this period, other western states did not support the Turkish Republic enough about economic issues but, after the convergence between Germany and the Turkish Republic, they changed their policy. The milestone of Turkish-German relations was year 1936 because, in this period, Germany was following Italy-lined politics. Italy was a thread for the Turkish Republic and for the Balkan states because of the Italy’s aggressive policy[46]. Germany could not understand the Turkish side’s concerns about Italian thread and they wanted to separate the Turkish Republic from the other western countries and forced the Turkish Republic to join Roma-Berlin Pact (Axis). The Turkish Republic advocated Germany against the Treaty of Versailles and German reaction against new order of the Post-World War 1 but, the Turkish Republic could not tolerate Germany-Italy cooperation. Therefore, the Turkish Republic joined the Anti-Revisionist side.
G) Relations with the Soviet Union
During the 1923-1932 period, relations between the Turkish Republic and the Soviet Union was convenient but friendly policies of the Turkish Republic with western states, negatively affected relations with the Soviet Union. To improve relations, in 1932, the Prime Minister Ismet Inönü and the Minister of Foreign Affairs Tevfik Rüştü Aras visited the Soviet Union and with the entry of the Soviet Union into the League of Nations[47], relations between two states were relieved but these positive relations were ended with the Montreux Convenient[48].
H) Hatay Question and Relations with France
The last problem in 1932-1938 period was about Hatay. In the national oath (Misak-ı Milli), Hatay was accepted as Turkish territory. On the other hand, in Sykes-Picot Agreement, France and the United Kingdom defended that, Hatay became French territory. When the Armistice of Mudros was signing, Hatay was a Turkish territory but after that, France invaded Hatay (based on 7th article of the armistice) and in 1920, with San Remo Conference, allied powers accepted Hatay as French territory. However, France lost the War of Independence and signed a treaty with the Turkish side on October 20th, 1921(Treaty of Ankara). According to this treaty, both sides accepted that, independent regime was founded in Hatay and Turkish accepted as formal language of this independent regime (Gönlübol-Sar 1987:127). During the negotiations of Lausanne, this subject also was argued but, neither France nor the Turkish Republic got any result. In 1936, France decided to leave this region to Syria but, the Turkish Republic rejected it and the Hatay Question was argued in the League of Nations and found Turkish thesis justified and Hatay became independent again. On the other hand, citizens of Hatay also demanded joining into the borders of Turkey. As consequence, on June 23rd , 1939, the Treaty of Ankara was signed between France and the Turkish Republic and with this treaty, election was made within the Hatay Parliament and parliament reached consensus for joining into the borders of the Turkish Republic but President Mustafa Kemal died in 1938 and could not see the results of his efforts about Hatay Question[49].
3) Post-Atatürk Period (1938-1945)
On November 10th, 1938, the founder of Turkey and Republican People’s Party, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was dead and Ismet Inönü became new president of the Turkish Republic. As a political career, he was the commander of the western armies during the War of Independence and during the War of Independence, he was elected as the chief of army. After the War of Independence, Ismet Inönü represented the Turkish Grand National Assembly in the Treaty of Lausanne and the Armistice of Mudanya. In 1923, he became the prime minister of the Turkish Republic. Furthermore, he was a close friend of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Therefore, after the Mustafa Kemal, a person who had similar mentalities with Mustafa Kemal, became the President of Turkey but different from Mustafa Kemal, Ismet Inönü ruled the state as “national leader”. Turkish writer Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, called him as the second man[50].
During the Post-Atatürk Period, in general, foreign policy of Atatürk Period was followed but the Turkish Republic was more prudential. The Turkish Government aimed to protect status quo of Post-Lausanne Period[51] and on the other hand, tried to be neutral during the Second World War. Tevfik Rüştü Aras was the minister of foreign affairs and until 1938, he joined many negotiations with other states but, there was a competition between Ismet Inönü and Tevfik Rüştü Aras and when Ismet Inönü came to power, he replaced Tevfik Rüştü Aras with Şükrü Saraçoglu and Numan Menemencioglu[52]. Therefore, for taking radical decisions, Ismet Inönü strengthened his position within the state.
A) Relations with the Allied Powers (1938- 1943)
Before the Second World War, the Turkish Republic improved relations with the United Kingdom against the expansionist and aggressive policies of Germany and Italy and on May 13th, 1939, Turkish- British Declaration was proclaimed. Besides that, the problems between France and the Turkish Republic were ended after the solution of Hatay Question and Turkish-French Declaration was proclaimed on June 23rd , 1939[53]. Moreover, the Turkish Republic signed an Alliance Agreement with the United Kingdom and France. According to this agreement, if any war that France and the United Kingdom joined in, was shifted to the Mediterranean, Turkey would help them. Moreover, if the Turkish Republic was attacked by any European State, France and the United Kingdom would help the Turkish Republic but, the main principle of the Turkish Republic’s policy was neutrality against war[54] and the Turkish Republic added “Turkey would help France and the United Kingdom, if there was no Soviet thread” clause (2nd protocol) to the agreement. Therefore, the Turkish Republic signed this agreement not to enter the war, signed because the Turkish Republic wanted to protect the balance in international relations between states. These diplomatic moves were adopting independent from the National Assembly and society and these diplomatic moves were the combination of the Ottoman Empire’s balance of power and the foreign policy principles of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
On September 1st, 1939, Germany attacked Poland without any war declaration. Thereupon, the United Kingdom and France declared war against Germany on September 3rd, 1939 and with this declaration the Second World War was started[55]. In May 1940, Germany attacked France and Italy joined into war and as a result of it, the war was shifted to the Mediterranean. According to the Alliance Agreement, the Turkish Republic had to enter the war against Germany but, Ismet Inönü used 2nd protocol of the agreement and protected the neutrality of state. This political movement was very beneficial for the Turkish Republic because, Germany invaded France in very short time and France was surrendered. After the invasion of France, the United Kingdom did not force the Turkish Republic to join into war because, they afraid that, if they forced the Turkish Republic, the Turkish Republic may enter the Axis[56]. The Grand National Assembly and citizens also supported the government’s foreign policy and position against war. This pragmatic mentality may save millions of Turkish citizens.
B) Relations with Germany
In 1941, the Axis forces invaded Balkans and Germans were marching through Bulgaria. Moreover, France was capitulated by Germany and agreements that made with the United Kingdom and France were criticized in the national assembly and some statesmen wanted to make an agreement with Germany because, they could not guess, what is Hitler’s next step. According to the United Kingdom, Turkey would have invaded by the Soviet Union and Germany[57]. However, Germany gave guarantee to Turkey. After that, Adolf Hitler sent a letter to Ismet Inönü and this prepared a basis for Turkish-German Non-Aggression Pact. Moreover, Germany and Turkey signed a trade agreement. According to this agreement, Turkey would have sell 90.000 tons of chromium to Germany. On June 22nd, 1941, Germany attacked its ally, the Soviet Union. It was the milestone for the Second World War and Turkey because, Germans defeated in Stalingrad and Allied Powers gained advantage against Germany. For Turkey, the Turkish Republic saw two states as a thread in that period, Germany and the Soviet Union. A war between these two states, relieved Turkey. The biggest fear of Turkey was got capitulated by Germany and the Soviet Union like Poland and in political science, this fear called as “Poland Syndrome”. German-Soviet War helped Turkey to get rid of this syndrome[58]. The German-Turkish relations were ended with the war declaration of Turkey to Germany in the last months of the Second World War.
C) Relations with the Soviet Union
During this period, relations between the Turkish Republic and the Soviet Union were tense. Especially, after the invasion of Poland by the Soviet Union and Germany[59]. Besides that, their demands about Eastern Anatolia and the straits were affected the relations more negative but, the Soviet Union was attacked by Germany and with this, the biggest fear of the Turkish Republic was disappeared. Italian Ambassador Peppo summarized this fact as, Turks’ hope was fall of the last German soldier’s death body on the last Soviet soldier’s death body. Before the invasion of the Soviet Union by Germany, the Turkish Republic and the Soviet Union were declared non-aggression pact on March 25th, 1941 but, after the invasions, the Soviet Union declared war against Germany and joined into Allied Powers[60]. It means the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union became friends. In August 1941, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union invaded Iran but, their real aim was Turkey. As a result of this invasions, the Turkish Government understood that, they could not trust anyone except themselves.
D) Relations with the Allied Powers (1943-1945)
The Allied Powers during 1938-1943 and during 1943-1945 were different because, after the German attack, the Soviet Union joined into Allied Powers and in 1943, the Soviet Union defeated Germans in Stalingrad. Besides that, the Allied Powers got the advantage in Africa front and started to attack the Axis forces. To sum up, failure of Germans in Stalingrad was the beginning of the end. After this failure, the Axis Powers were forcing the Turkish Republic to enter into war but on the other hand, the Allied Powers were forcing the Turkish Republic to protect neutrality[61] but opinions about the Turkish Republic were changed and on January 30th, 1943, in Adana Conference, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Winston Churcill came to Turkey and started negotiations with the Turkish Republic to entered them into the war. In this conference Winston Churchill stated that, the Turkish Republic must be protected against the Soviet thread and the most logical way against this possibility was, joining the war. Against Churchill’s opinion, Ismet Inönü stated that, our army was not enough to enter the war, without ordnance and equipment, the Turkish Republic could not join the war. His opinion became very beneficial for the Turkish Republic because, he gained the equipment that he was stated, after the conference[62]. Another conference was Cairo, on November 5th, 1943. In this conference, the Turkish Republic was also forced to join into the war but, the Turkish Republic rejected their call again and the Minister of Foreign Affairs Numan Menemencioğlu stated that, the Turkish Republic could not join into the war without equipment and economic support. In this period, Germany was losing advantage but, the Turkish Republic did not want to increase the tension with Germany but on February 23rd, 1945, the Turkish Republic declared war against Germany and Japan, but this declaration did not transform an action. The Western States and the Soviet Union forced the Turkish Republic in many times but, could not succeed but why the Turkish Republic declared war against Germany and Japan in February 1945? Because, the western states left the Turkish Republic alone when they could not persuade the Turkish Republic to join into the war and only way to find a partner after the Second World War was joining into the war. Also, the Turkish Republic wanted to join San Francisco Conference where the United Nations will be established in. Therefore, the Turkish Republic declared war against Germany and Japan at the end of the Second World War[63].
In Conclusion (1923-1945)
The Turkish Republic was founded on October 23rd, 1923, after the War of Independence. The Turkish Republic entered international area later from the other states and with legacy of the Ottoman Empire. During 1923-1932, the Turkish Republic worked for being completely established and worked to finish problems that coming from the Treaty of Lausanne. The Mosul Question with the United Kingdom, population exchange with Greece, problems about foreign schools and debts with France were solved. The Mosul Question was solved against the Turkish Republic’s opinion but, in the other problems, the Turkish Republic got what they want. On the other hand, the Turkish Republic wanted to improve relations with the other states.
During 1932-1938 period, foundation of the Turkish Republic was completed, legitimacy of the state was accepted in international area by the other states but, in Italy fascist leader, Benito Mussolini; in Germany, Nazi Party came to power and the world covered by war danger. The first movement of the Turkish Republic was entry into the League of Nations. After that, to improve cooperation and create barricade to Italy and Germany, the Balkan Entente and the Saadabad Pact were signed. With these movement, the Turkish Republic protected eastern and western borders from invasions. Moreover, the Turkish Republic signed the Mediterranean Pact with the Mediterranean States and the United Kingdom against Fascist Italy. Also, problems about the straits were solved with the Montreux Convention. The Turkish Republic got the control on the straits. Therefore, main principles of this period were supporting peace, cooperative political movements, gaining diplomatic prestige and protecting borders.
Last period was the Post-Atatürk Period. The founder of the Turkish Republic and the Republican People’s Party, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk died in 1938. His friend and old prime minister of the Turkish Republic, Ismet Inönü elected as president and then, national leader. This period was ended in 1945 because one year later, under the leadership of the Republican People’s Party delegates Adnan Menderes, Fuad Köprülü, Celal Bayar and Refik Koraltan, the Democratic Party was founded and the Single Party Period became Multi Party Period[64].
The main event of this period was the Second World War. The Turkish Republic’s policy was to improve relations with the western states but, war danger and aggressive policies of the Axis Forces, affected the Turkish foreign policy. During this period, Ismet Inönü took all the responsibility of the state and adopted neutrality policy with combining the Ottoman Empire’s balance policy and Atatürk’s peace policy. The Turkish Republic signed treaties and agreements with the other states but, avoided joining into the war but, when they understood that, Germany was failed, they wanted to improve relations with the Allied Powers but, the Allied Powers left the Turkish Republic and ended relations with them, when the Turkish Republic rejected their call many times. As a result of the Allied Powers attitude, the Turkish Republic declared war against Germany and Japan. The Single Part Period ended with the establishment of the Democratic Party and Republican People’s Party lost majority in 1950 elections and after 27 years, the Republican People’s Party became opposition party[65].
Mert Can Uzunoğlu
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Mert Can Uzunoğlu
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the Turkish Foreign Policy of the Single Party period and define this policy in three periods as, the Foreign Policy of Early Republican Period (1923-1932), the Foreign Policy of 1932-1938 and Post-Atatürk Period (1938-1945). The first step of study is defining the main principles of the Foreign Policy of the Single Party period. After that, text follows chronologic order. During these periods leader part was Republican People’s Party but state leaders were different. During 1923-1938, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the leader of the Turkish Republic and he ruled as president until his death in 1938. After that, Ismet İnönü was elected as president and ruled until 1950. In order to explain these two leader’s and the Republican People’s Party policies, books, archives, quotes, interviews and articles were used in this study. Therefore, this study was prepared with objective writing. There are not any subjective opinions about Foreign Policy of the Single Party Period. The main goals of this study are giving brief information to the reader, clarifying facts that shape foreign policy of the Single Party period and taking lessons from the past.
General Facts About the Foreign Policy of the Single Party Period
The foreign policy of the Turkish Republic during the single party period can be defined as peaceful, cooperative, realistic, rational and constructive. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk named the foreign policy as “Peace at home, peace in the world”. Therefore, state wanted to solve disagreements in international area, with peaceful policies. Because, the Turkish Republic was a new state, had to develop itself[1] and state concentrated on domestic problems rather than international problems. Mustafa Kemal stated that, “before anything, first, we must work for our people’s welfare within our national borders, then we can work in international area”. In international area, the Turkish Republic aimed at the preservation of the status quo and hard-won victory of 1923[2]. After the completely establishment of the state, the Turkish Republic took a place in international area with the other states.
Foreign Policy of the Single Party Period can be defined in three main stage as;
1) The Foreign Policy of Early Republican Period
2) The Foreign Policy of 1932-1938
3) Post-Atatürk Period
1)The Foreign Policy of Early Republican Period (1923-1932)
The foreign policy of this period was about national policy understanding and correspondingly about the Treaty of Lausanne. The Turkish Government worked to find solutions for some unsolved problems of this treaty. Apart from this treaty, government also worked for normalize the relations with greater states like the USSR, the United Kingdom etc. Government also followed cooperative policy with the states that have common borders. These are the basic principles of the Turkish Foreign Policy in Early Republican Period[3].
A) the Mosul Question and Relations with the United Kingdom
The Mosul Region(Iraq) was controlled by the Ottoman Empire until the end of the First World War. In 1916, The United Kingdom, Russia and France signed Sykes Picot Agreement gave Mosul to France in this agreement but in 1920 with the San Remo Conference, France and the United Kingdom agreed that, the Mosul Region was given to the United Kingdom’s mandatary regime in Iraq but before the San Remo Conference, allied forces signed the Armistice of Mudros with the Ottoman Empire. With this armistice, they got the right that, they could invade regions of the Ottoman Empire if there were dangerous activities for allied forces. On this basis, they invaded Mosul just three days after the Armistice of Mudros until 15th of November but after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Grand National Assembly was founded and this assembly accepted national oath and with this oath, wanted the Mosul Region in their borders. To solve this problem, delegates from the Grand National Assembly led by Ismet Inonu, started negotiations in Lausanne after their victory in the War of Independence but in the Treaty of Lausanne, neither the Turkish delegates nor the United Kingdom agreed on this issue. All these problems were the starting point of the Mosul Question and one of the biggest problem of the Turkish Republic[4].
The Turkish Republic and the United Kingdom started negotiations on May 1924 (Haliç Conference). The Turkish Republic represented by Ali Fethi Okyar. Fethi Okyar also supported Ismet Inonu’s ideas that defended in Lausanne. This conference was ended with the same results with Lausanne and states could not reach consensus and this subject carried to the League of Nations. Negotiations for the Mosul Question started on September 1924 and the Turkish Republic demanded voting in the Mosul Region but the United Kingdom rejected that idea. In British figures, there were 494,007 Kurds, 166,941 Arabs, 61,336 Christians, 38,652 Turks, 26,257 Yezidis and 11,897 Jews, in total 799,090 but in Turkish figures there were 263,830 Kurds, 43,210 Arabs, 21,000 Christians, 146,960 Turks, 18,000 Yezidis and 11,000 Jews, in total 503,000[5]. For reaching a consensus, a commission was established and this commission was represented by the state delegates that had objective standing against the Mosul Question lead this commission. These delegates were Pal Teleki from Hungary, A. Wirsen from Sweden and Colonel Poulis from Belgium and this commission drew line between Hakkari and Mosul called Brussels Line[6] and commission accepted Mosul as Iraq territory. The Turkish Republic left Mosul in December 1925 and as a result the Turkish Republic and the United Kingdom signed Ankara Agreement in 1926.
All these facts effected Turkish-English relations in negative way. There was war threat among these two states during the Mosul Question but economic problems, domestic problems and tiredness of old wars discouraged them to start military operations.
B) Turkish – Greek Relations and Population Exchange
Since 1789, Greeks had defended “Megali Idea”. Especially after they became independent state in 1830, they joined military actions against the Ottoman Empire. After the First World War, Greeks invaded Western Anatolia. This means Turkish and Greek relations were tense in that period. As a result of these wars, Greece lost manpower in Anatolian lands and to compensate this, Greeks demanded the Greek population that live within the borders of Anatolia.
After the War of Independence, negotiations started in Lausanne between Allied Powers and the Grand National Assembly. As a decision between Greek government and the Grand National Assembly in 1923, they accepted that, Rums that were living in Anatolia exchanged with Turks that were living in Greek Lands. It affected more than 1.5 million people[7]. Greek Government changed their policy about population exchange to left more people in Istanbul. Thereupon, the Turkish Government deported the patriarch of orthodox people. A new problem started between Turks and Greeks as a result of this response, but it was solved with the resign of the patriarch in 1925. With continuing negotiations between the Turkish and Greek Governments, on December 1926, Athens Agreement was signed and population exchange was made between two states but all problems was solved in 1930 with the Treaty of Ankara.[8]
After population exchange, the prime minister of Greece, Eleftherios Venizelos visited Turkey to normalize relations among two states and normalized relations continued until Cyprus Problem.
C) Turkish – Soviet Relations
The Russian Empire saw The Ottoman Empire as an enemy because of religious and geographical reasons and these two states fought each other but after the Bolshevik Revolution[9] and Russian Civil War, new state was founded called the Soviet Union under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin officially in 1922 and new state adopted friendly policy with the Turkish Republic. Moreover, the Soviet Union supported Turkish movement in the War of Independence.
On December 16th, 1925 , the League Nations supported the United Kingdom in the Mosul Question and the Turkish Republic decided to make a politic attack against the League of Nations’ decision and one day after, Non-aggression and Neutrality Pact signed between Turkish minister of foreign affairs Tevfik Rüştü Aras and his counterpart Georgy Chicherin[10] and this pact accepted in Turkish Grand National Assembly on December 22th ,1925. On December 1926, President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk stated that, “Turkish-Soviet Non-aggression and Neutrality Pact was only the beginning of Turkish – Soviet friendship and our next step is making strong alliance.[11]”
On March 11th, 1927, Turkish-Soviet Trade Agreement was signed in Ankara. With this agreement, the Soviet Union opened trade representatives in Istanbul, Izmir, Mersin, Erzurum, Trabzon and Konya. On the other hand, because of economic depressions, this agreement cancelled occasionally[12].
D) Turkish-French Relations
France was one of the enemies of the Turkish National Movement during the War of Independence but after the victory of the Turkish National Movement in First and Second Battle of Inönü, the French Government changed attitude about Turkish National Movement and also their aims on Anatolia. As from March 1921, the French governments started constructive negotiations with Turkish side. On June 9th ,1921, the French Government sent Henry-Franklin Boullion[13] to Ankara as a representative. In Ankara, Henry-Franklin Boullion, Mustafa Kemal, Fevzi Çakmak and Yusuf Kemal(Tengirşenk)[14] entered into negotiations[15]. In her article, Dr. Hülya Baykal stated that, Mustafa Kemal was non- compromise about national oath (Misak-ı Milli) but Henry-Franklin Boullion accepted the Treaty of Sevres and wanted to force the Turkish National Movement to sign this treaty. As a result of this disagreement, positive relations relations among Turkish and French side were broken. After this disagreement, the French Government decided to wait for new Greek attack on Turkish side but Turkish forces defeated Greek forces in Sakarya and the French Government restarted the negotiations with Turkish side and on October 20th, 1921, the Treaty of Ankara signed between Henry-Franklin Boullion and Yusuf Kemal(Tengirşenk). This treaty determined Southern Anatolia borders (not Hatay) and with this treaty, France gave up privileges that gained during the Ottoman Empire reign[16]. Moreover, France became the first “allied” state that legitimize the Turkish Grand National Assembly Government. Nevertheless, these positive relations became reversed after the Treaty of Lausanne because of the problems about determination of Syrian border and situation of French Schools.
In the Treaty of Ankara (1921) the French Government and the Turkish Government decided to establish a commission for determining borders between Syria and Turkey. Nevertheless, this commission established on September 1925 and negotiations ended in 1930. In respect to third article of the Treaty of Ankara, the border will be drawn with starting from Gulf of Alexandretta to Meydan-ı Ekbez. Then, Kilis will be given to Turkey. Furthermore, the Tomb of Suleyman Shah, who was the grandfather of Sultan Osman[17], will became Turkish land but will stayed within the Syrian borders[18].
Other problem between Turkey and France was about situation of the missionary schools of France that exist in Turkish lands. In 1924, Turkish Government declared law of Tevhid-i Tedrisat. It means the unification of education within the borders of Turkey. The Turkish Government wanted to gather all schools, under the control of Ministry of Education. On the other hand, other countries, but especially France, were against this law but the Turkish Government solved this problem easily.
The last problem between France and Turkey was about debts that coming from the Ottoman Empire because of the Industrial Revolution, national rebellions and wars, economy of the Ottoman Empire was collapsing. Until 1914, the Ottoman Empire took loans 41 times with higher interest rates and external rate became 104 million and 212 thousand Ottoman Liras. Debt service was 13 million Ottoman Liras and the budget of the empire was 30 million in this year. Therefore, debt service was %43 of the budget[19]. These loans were taken from Western European states. Moreover, the Ottoman Empire took loans from Germany to prepare war and the empire took 150 million Ottoman Liras after 1914, from Germany[20]. These debts were the worst legacy of the empire to the republic. While negotiations in Lausanne, Turkish delegation persuaded other states for separation of debts among the nations of the Ottoman Empire. This problem completely solved on June 13th, 1928 with the Treaty of Paris. States prepared a schedule for the payments, the Turkish Republic repaid nearly 85 million liras and the republic completed this repayment in 1954[21].
The last contact between Turkey and France was sale of Adana-Mersin railway to the Turkish State on June 1929[22].
E) Relations with the Islamic World
The Turkish Republic’s mentality was different from the Ottoman Empire. The new state wanted to cut the links between Eastern World and tried to be westernized. This mentality had effects on relations with Arabic world. Especially “nationalist ideology” of the state, severed the ties between Arabs and Turks (Ass. Dr. Hasan Duran). Therefore, there was not special interest about Arabic World during 1923-1932. On the other hand, the Turkish Republic wanted to develop relations with some Islamic countries like Iran and Afghanistan.
During the War of Independence (of Turkey), at the same time, Afghanistan was at war with the United Kingdom for their independence because in 1914, Habibullah Khan negotiated with the United Kingdom that, if Afghanistan remained neutral in the World War, the United Kingdom will legitimize their independence. Thereupon, Afghanistan rejected the call of caliphate Sultan V.Mehmed[23] and remained neutral as they promised but even though, the United Kingdom did not legitimize their independence but in 1919, with the Treaty of Rawalpindi, Afghanistan became independent. Therefore, both Turks and Afghans at war against the United Kingdom and this struggle was the beginning of convergence between Turks and Afghans. According to this convergence, in 1921, the Treaty of Friendship signed between Turks and Afghans. For Turkish side, Yusuf Kemal (Minister of Economics); for Afghan side, General Mehmet Veli Khan signed this treaty and Afghanistan became the first Islamic state that legitimize the Government of Turkish Grand National Assembly. Moreover, in 1928, King Emanullah Khan visited Turkey, both countries signed new treaties and the Turkish Republic sent numerous experts to Afghanistan for helping them to develop their state[24].
In 1920, Turks were at war against Greeks (supported by the United Kingdom). The biggest supporters of Turks were Indian Muslims in this war and their supportive policy also affected the visions of other Islamic states. Turkish side wanted to use this situation in their favour and adopted friendly policy with Iran. In 1921, Mustafa Kemal stated that, “Teheran Government declared us as an ally against the whole pressures of the United Kingdom”[25]. In 1925, Reza Pahlavi became the Shah of Iran[26]. Normally, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was secular and modernist and because of these mentalities, he decided to cut the ties with the East but Shah Reza Pahlavi also had same mentalities with Atatürk. As a consequence, both states signed Treaty of Friendship in 1932. With this treaty, both states solved geographical problems between themselves and developed their relations.
2) The Foreign Policy of 1932-1938
Before this period, the Turkish Republic solved all the problems about the Treaty of Lausanne and completed the establishment of the state. In this period, the Turkish Republic was more active in international area. After the Great Depression[27] in 1929, alignments started between states and states divided in two groups as;
states that wanted to change status quo after the First World War called “revisionists” and
states that wanted to protect status quo called “anti-revisionists” (Ahmet Mehmetefendioğlu). In this division, the Turkish Republic was in anti-revisionist side. Besides after the Great Depression, liberal policies lost power and regimes like fascism, nazism got power. In Italy, fascist dictator Benito Mussolini became leader and in Germany, Nazi Party leader Hitler became ruler and both states adopted expansionist policies[28]. As result of these policies, the Turkish Republic followed peaceful policies and tried to make agreements with other states for precaution and cooperation.
A) Entry of the Turkish Republic into the League of Nations
In 1917, President Woodrow Wilson mentioned the necessity of peace community. According to Wilson, balance of power system caused the World War, because of it, world needed collective security system and only collective security could protect world from war danger (Mckay 1987). On January 18th, 1919, Paris Peace Conference started. With the pressures of the USA and the UK, a commission established to make a constitution for the League of Nations[29]. On April 28th, 1919, delegates of the conference reached consensus and accepted constitution. In the first meeting of the League of Nations, 42 states were represented by delegates (O’Callaghan and Griffiths 2002).
The Turkish Republic entered this league in 1932 with invitations of Spain and Greece. It was very remarkable situation because in 1923, while negotiations of Lausanne, Ismet Pasha (Inonu) sent a telegraph to Ankara and said, “Turkey must be ready for the invitation of the United Kingdom. They will invite us to the League of Nations”[30]. However, the United Kingdom had different opinion about that. They wanted to end the Mosul Question for their convenience and without support of the League of Nations on Turkey, the United Kingdom could easily solve this problem. After the Mosul Question, everything was ready for the Turkish entrance to the league but in that point, the Soviet Union protested this entrance because, they thought that, if Turkey enter the League of Nations, they will only be in relations with western states but this problem also solved with the Soviet Union’s entry to the League of Nations in 1934, just two years after Turkey[31].
B) Relations with the Balkan States and the Balkan Entente
The Turkish Republic signed several agreements with Balkan states. For example;
on December 15, 1923 with Albania, on October 18, 1925 with Bulgaria, on October 25, 1925 with Yugoslavia. These agreements proved us the peace policy of Turkey. Besides, the Turkish Republic improved relations with it’s old rival Greece, especially in 1930. As a result of this positive atmosphere, both states signed the Friendship and Border Security Agreement in 1933. Although this positive atmosphere between the Turkish Republic and Balkan states, on the other hand in Europe, fascist policies were appearing under the leadership of Benito Mussolini (Italy) and in Germany, Nazi Party got the control of the state and the leader of this party was Adolf Hitler[32]. These two leaders followed expansionist policies against other states and this danger, push the Balkan states and Turkey for signing Balkan Entente because, they thought, they could only survive with cooperation. Balkan Entente and its Additional Protocol, initialized on February 4, 1934 in Geneva and signed in Athens on February 9, 1934 (Assoc. Prof. Dr. Esra S. DEGERLI). This entente was signed between Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania[33]. This pact aimed at continuing land order in the Balkans and secured the borders. According to the pact, Balkan States were going to take action for the Balkan States which entered the war, if these four Balkan States were attacked by a state or states other than Balkans (Soysal 1989,459). Nevertheless, the Balkan Entente could not prevent the Italian expansionary policy through the Balkans and invasion of Poland by Third Reich[34] because none of the states had power to stop these invasions. Even though, the Prime Minister Ismet Inönü and the Minister of Foreign Affairs Tevfik Rüştü Aras visited the Balkan states, they could not save the entente.
C) The Saadabad Pact and Relations with the Islamic States
The other notable achievements in international affairs followed. In 1937, the Turkish Republic joined to the Saadabad Pact. The other participants were Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq. Turkey became a bridge between Asia and Europe[35]. This pact was similar with the Balkan Entente. It was hard to accept the Turkish Republic as a friendly country for the Eastern States because, they lived as vassals of the Ottoman Empire for many years and moreover, the Turkish Republic adopted secularist policies and Muslim states saw secularization as “attacking on Islam”[36]. Therefore, secularist policies of the Single Party Period, separated Turks and Arabic States but after Afghan-Turk rapprochement and friendly policies between Shah Emanullah Khan and Mustafa Kemal were signs of good relations between Arabic World. During the 1932-1938 period, the Turkish Republic signed two cooperation agreements with Iran (1932, 1937), three cooperation agreements with Iraq (1926,1932,1936) and one cooperation agreement with Egypt in 1937 (Ahmet Mehmetefendioğlu 2018). These good relations crowned with the Saadabad Pact. This pact accepted by the Turkish Grand National Assembly in 1938. With the Balkan Entente and the Saadabad Pact, eastern and western borders of the Turkish Republic were protected. However, this pact also dissolved because of the Second World War like the Balkan Entente[37].
D) Montreux Convention
The straits helped the Ottoman Empire to expand empire’s borders through the other continents. However, with the decline of empire, the straits became weakness of empire because, after the 18th century, the straits became target of the Western European States. However, in the north, Russia became strong state and demanded privileges from the Ottoman Empire about the straits. In 1809, with the Treaty of Kale-i Sultaniye, the straits were closed for all battleships but starting from this treaty, many agreements were signed about the straits like, 1833 Hünkar Iskelesi, 1841 London Conference, 1856 Paris and 1871 London[38]. As a result of these treaties, the straits were closed for all battleships but merchant ships could use the straits. States reached consensus about this law and it was accepted but this law was ended with the First World War because, two German battleships called Goeben (Yavuz) and Breslau (Midilli) passed the straits and attacked Sevastopol and bombed Russian lands[39]. After that, in 1917, the United States of America joined the war and in 1918, President Woodrow Wilson declared “fourteen points” and his fourteen points were accepted by the states. On October 30th, 1918, the Armistice of Mudros signed among the Ottoman Empire and Allied Powers. With this armistice, the Ottoman Empire accepted that, the straits became open for all states and Allied Powers got control on straits until the negotiations of Lausanne.
During the negotiations of Lausanne, there were three opinions about the straits;
Opinion of the Allied Powers: the straits must be opened for all battleships and merchant ships but the straits became demilitarized and controlled by international company.
Opinion of Russians: the straits must be opened only for merchant ships not for battleships and Turkish side would strengthened the straits.
Opinion of Turkish side: Passing from the straits must be free for all states only if the security of Marmara region was provided[40].
The Treaty of Lausanne was signed in order to opinion of the Allied Powers but in 1935, during the League of Nations meeting, Turkish side uttered apprehensions about demilitarization of the straits and Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs Tevfik Rüştü Aras demanded cancellation of demilitarization specification. Efforts of Tevfik Rüştü Aras were supported by the Soviet Union and Greece. After that, in 1936, the Turkish Republic persuaded the other states for changing about status of the straits and the Montreux Convention started on June 22th, 1936 and signed on July 20th between the Turkish Republic, the Soviet Union, Japan, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, France, Bulgaria and the United Kingdom. The Turkish Republic gained dominance on the straits and also gained prestige on international area. Although the Montreux Convention helped the Turkish Republic to normalize relations with the United Kingdom, negatively affected relations with the Soviet Union[41].
E) Relations with the United Kingdom and the Mediterranean Pact
During 1923-1932 period, relations of the Turkish Republic with the United Kingdom were negative because of the Mosul Question but after resolution of the Mosul Question and especially after 1932, the Turkish Republic adopted cooperative and friendly policies with the other states, particularly with the United Kingdom[42]. Besides that, Fascist Italy attacked Ethiopia in 1935 and this fact also developed relations between the Turkish Republic and the United Kingdom and in 1936, the Mediterranean Pact signed between the Turkish Republic, Greece, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia. This pact was signed against aggressive policy of Italy[43]. The United Kingdom gave cooperation guarantee for possible Italian invasion. Normally, Spain was also called this pact but there was a civil war in Spain in this period and as a result of this civil war, Francisco Franco elected as generalissimo and Spain adopted friendly policies with Nazi Party and Fascist Italy.[44]
Another positive fact between the Turkish Republic and the United Kingdom was visitation of King Edward VIII. In 1936, the king visited Istanbul to improve relations with the Turkish Republic. According to Erik Göldstein’s classification, although visitation of King Edward VIII did not formal, it was recorded as reconciliation visiting between rival states.
F) Relations with Germany
Germany was an ally of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. In other words, losing side. After the war, Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles with Allied Powers and because of this treaty, Germany could not make close relations with other states[45]. For this reason, although Germany was an ally of Turks during the First World War, relations among Germany and the Turkish Republic were exist in low level. Nonetheless, in 1933, Nazi Party got the power in Germany and improved political and economic power of Germany. With these improvements, Germany turned back to international area and relations between the Turkish Republic started after the 1930 as economic relations because, the Turkish Republic adopted First Five Year Plan and needed industrial equipment. Therefore, political convergence started between Germany and the Turkish Republic because of the economic necessities. In this period, other western states did not support the Turkish Republic enough about economic issues but, after the convergence between Germany and the Turkish Republic, they changed their policy. The milestone of Turkish-German relations was year 1936 because, in this period, Germany was following Italy-lined politics. Italy was a thread for the Turkish Republic and for the Balkan states because of the Italy’s aggressive policy[46]. Germany could not understand the Turkish side’s concerns about Italian thread and they wanted to separate the Turkish Republic from the other western countries and forced the Turkish Republic to join Roma-Berlin Pact (Axis). The Turkish Republic advocated Germany against the Treaty of Versailles and German reaction against new order of the Post-World War 1 but, the Turkish Republic could not tolerate Germany-Italy cooperation. Therefore, the Turkish Republic joined the Anti-Revisionist side.
G) Relations with the Soviet Union
During the 1923-1932 period, relations between the Turkish Republic and the Soviet Union was convenient but friendly policies of the Turkish Republic with western states, negatively affected relations with the Soviet Union. To improve relations, in 1932, the Prime Minister Ismet Inönü and the Minister of Foreign Affairs Tevfik Rüştü Aras visited the Soviet Union and with the entry of the Soviet Union into the League of Nations[47], relations between two states were relieved but these positive relations were ended with the Montreux Convenient[48].
H) Hatay Question and Relations with France
The last problem in 1932-1938 period was about Hatay. In the national oath (Misak-ı Milli), Hatay was accepted as Turkish territory. On the other hand, in Sykes-Picot Agreement, France and the United Kingdom defended that, Hatay became French territory. When the Armistice of Mudros was signing, Hatay was a Turkish territory but after that, France invaded Hatay (based on 7th article of the armistice) and in 1920, with San Remo Conference, allied powers accepted Hatay as French territory. However, France lost the War of Independence and signed a treaty with the Turkish side on October 20th, 1921(Treaty of Ankara). According to this treaty, both sides accepted that, independent regime was founded in Hatay and Turkish accepted as formal language of this independent regime (Gönlübol-Sar 1987:127). During the negotiations of Lausanne, this subject also was argued but, neither France nor the Turkish Republic got any result. In 1936, France decided to leave this region to Syria but, the Turkish Republic rejected it and the Hatay Question was argued in the League of Nations and found Turkish thesis justified and Hatay became independent again. On the other hand, citizens of Hatay also demanded joining into the borders of Turkey. As consequence, on June 23rd , 1939, the Treaty of Ankara was signed between France and the Turkish Republic and with this treaty, election was made within the Hatay Parliament and parliament reached consensus for joining into the borders of the Turkish Republic but President Mustafa Kemal died in 1938 and could not see the results of his efforts about Hatay Question[49].
3) Post-Atatürk Period (1938-1945)
On November 10th, 1938, the founder of Turkey and Republican People’s Party, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was dead and Ismet Inönü became new president of the Turkish Republic. As a political career, he was the commander of the western armies during the War of Independence and during the War of Independence, he was elected as the chief of army. After the War of Independence, Ismet Inönü represented the Turkish Grand National Assembly in the Treaty of Lausanne and the Armistice of Mudanya. In 1923, he became the prime minister of the Turkish Republic. Furthermore, he was a close friend of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Therefore, after the Mustafa Kemal, a person who had similar mentalities with Mustafa Kemal, became the President of Turkey but different from Mustafa Kemal, Ismet Inönü ruled the state as “national leader”. Turkish writer Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, called him as the second man[50].
During the Post-Atatürk Period, in general, foreign policy of Atatürk Period was followed but the Turkish Republic was more prudential. The Turkish Government aimed to protect status quo of Post-Lausanne Period[51] and on the other hand, tried to be neutral during the Second World War. Tevfik Rüştü Aras was the minister of foreign affairs and until 1938, he joined many negotiations with other states but, there was a competition between Ismet Inönü and Tevfik Rüştü Aras and when Ismet Inönü came to power, he replaced Tevfik Rüştü Aras with Şükrü Saraçoglu and Numan Menemencioglu[52]. Therefore, for taking radical decisions, Ismet Inönü strengthened his position within the state.
A) Relations with the Allied Powers (1938- 1943)
Before the Second World War, the Turkish Republic improved relations with the United Kingdom against the expansionist and aggressive policies of Germany and Italy and on May 13th, 1939, Turkish- British Declaration was proclaimed. Besides that, the problems between France and the Turkish Republic were ended after the solution of Hatay Question and Turkish-French Declaration was proclaimed on June 23rd , 1939[53]. Moreover, the Turkish Republic signed an Alliance Agreement with the United Kingdom and France. According to this agreement, if any war that France and the United Kingdom joined in, was shifted to the Mediterranean, Turkey would help them. Moreover, if the Turkish Republic was attacked by any European State, France and the United Kingdom would help the Turkish Republic but, the main principle of the Turkish Republic’s policy was neutrality against war[54] and the Turkish Republic added “Turkey would help France and the United Kingdom, if there was no Soviet thread” clause (2nd protocol) to the agreement. Therefore, the Turkish Republic signed this agreement not to enter the war, signed because the Turkish Republic wanted to protect the balance in international relations between states. These diplomatic moves were adopting independent from the National Assembly and society and these diplomatic moves were the combination of the Ottoman Empire’s balance of power and the foreign policy principles of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
On September 1st, 1939, Germany attacked Poland without any war declaration. Thereupon, the United Kingdom and France declared war against Germany on September 3rd, 1939 and with this declaration the Second World War was started[55]. In May 1940, Germany attacked France and Italy joined into war and as a result of it, the war was shifted to the Mediterranean. According to the Alliance Agreement, the Turkish Republic had to enter the war against Germany but, Ismet Inönü used 2nd protocol of the agreement and protected the neutrality of state. This political movement was very beneficial for the Turkish Republic because, Germany invaded France in very short time and France was surrendered. After the invasion of France, the United Kingdom did not force the Turkish Republic to join into war because, they afraid that, if they forced the Turkish Republic, the Turkish Republic may enter the Axis[56]. The Grand National Assembly and citizens also supported the government’s foreign policy and position against war. This pragmatic mentality may save millions of Turkish citizens.
B) Relations with Germany
In 1941, the Axis forces invaded Balkans and Germans were marching through Bulgaria. Moreover, France was capitulated by Germany and agreements that made with the United Kingdom and France were criticized in the national assembly and some statesmen wanted to make an agreement with Germany because, they could not guess, what is Hitler’s next step. According to the United Kingdom, Turkey would have invaded by the Soviet Union and Germany[57]. However, Germany gave guarantee to Turkey. After that, Adolf Hitler sent a letter to Ismet Inönü and this prepared a basis for Turkish-German Non-Aggression Pact. Moreover, Germany and Turkey signed a trade agreement. According to this agreement, Turkey would have sell 90.000 tons of chromium to Germany. On June 22nd, 1941, Germany attacked its ally, the Soviet Union. It was the milestone for the Second World War and Turkey because, Germans defeated in Stalingrad and Allied Powers gained advantage against Germany. For Turkey, the Turkish Republic saw two states as a thread in that period, Germany and the Soviet Union. A war between these two states, relieved Turkey. The biggest fear of Turkey was got capitulated by Germany and the Soviet Union like Poland and in political science, this fear called as “Poland Syndrome”. German-Soviet War helped Turkey to get rid of this syndrome[58]. The German-Turkish relations were ended with the war declaration of Turkey to Germany in the last months of the Second World War.
C) Relations with the Soviet Union
During this period, relations between the Turkish Republic and the Soviet Union were tense. Especially, after the invasion of Poland by the Soviet Union and Germany[59]. Besides that, their demands about Eastern Anatolia and the straits were affected the relations more negative but, the Soviet Union was attacked by Germany and with this, the biggest fear of the Turkish Republic was disappeared. Italian Ambassador Peppo summarized this fact as, Turks’ hope was fall of the last German soldier’s death body on the last Soviet soldier’s death body. Before the invasion of the Soviet Union by Germany, the Turkish Republic and the Soviet Union were declared non-aggression pact on March 25th, 1941 but, after the invasions, the Soviet Union declared war against Germany and joined into Allied Powers[60]. It means the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union became friends. In August 1941, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union invaded Iran but, their real aim was Turkey. As a result of this invasions, the Turkish Government understood that, they could not trust anyone except themselves.
D) Relations with the Allied Powers (1943-1945)
The Allied Powers during 1938-1943 and during 1943-1945 were different because, after the German attack, the Soviet Union joined into Allied Powers and in 1943, the Soviet Union defeated Germans in Stalingrad. Besides that, the Allied Powers got the advantage in Africa front and started to attack the Axis forces. To sum up, failure of Germans in Stalingrad was the beginning of the end. After this failure, the Axis Powers were forcing the Turkish Republic to enter into war but on the other hand, the Allied Powers were forcing the Turkish Republic to protect neutrality[61] but opinions about the Turkish Republic were changed and on January 30th, 1943, in Adana Conference, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Winston Churcill came to Turkey and started negotiations with the Turkish Republic to entered them into the war. In this conference Winston Churchill stated that, the Turkish Republic must be protected against the Soviet thread and the most logical way against this possibility was, joining the war. Against Churchill’s opinion, Ismet Inönü stated that, our army was not enough to enter the war, without ordnance and equipment, the Turkish Republic could not join the war. His opinion became very beneficial for the Turkish Republic because, he gained the equipment that he was stated, after the conference[62]. Another conference was Cairo, on November 5th, 1943. In this conference, the Turkish Republic was also forced to join into the war but, the Turkish Republic rejected their call again and the Minister of Foreign Affairs Numan Menemencioğlu stated that, the Turkish Republic could not join into the war without equipment and economic support. In this period, Germany was losing advantage but, the Turkish Republic did not want to increase the tension with Germany but on February 23rd, 1945, the Turkish Republic declared war against Germany and Japan, but this declaration did not transform an action. The Western States and the Soviet Union forced the Turkish Republic in many times but, could not succeed but why the Turkish Republic declared war against Germany and Japan in February 1945? Because, the western states left the Turkish Republic alone when they could not persuade the Turkish Republic to join into the war and only way to find a partner after the Second World War was joining into the war. Also, the Turkish Republic wanted to join San Francisco Conference where the United Nations will be established in. Therefore, the Turkish Republic declared war against Germany and Japan at the end of the Second World War[63].
In Conclusion (1923-1945)
The Turkish Republic was founded on October 23rd, 1923, after the War of Independence. The Turkish Republic entered international area later from the other states and with legacy of the Ottoman Empire. During 1923-1932, the Turkish Republic worked for being completely established and worked to finish problems that coming from the Treaty of Lausanne. The Mosul Question with the United Kingdom, population exchange with Greece, problems about foreign schools and debts with France were solved. The Mosul Question was solved against the Turkish Republic’s opinion but, in the other problems, the Turkish Republic got what they want. On the other hand, the Turkish Republic wanted to improve relations with the other states.
During 1932-1938 period, foundation of the Turkish Republic was completed, legitimacy of the state was accepted in international area by the other states but, in Italy fascist leader, Benito Mussolini; in Germany, Nazi Party came to power and the world covered by war danger. The first movement of the Turkish Republic was entry into the League of Nations. After that, to improve cooperation and create barricade to Italy and Germany, the Balkan Entente and the Saadabad Pact were signed. With these movement, the Turkish Republic protected eastern and western borders from invasions. Moreover, the Turkish Republic signed the Mediterranean Pact with the Mediterranean States and the United Kingdom against Fascist Italy. Also, problems about the straits were solved with the Montreux Convention. The Turkish Republic got the control on the straits. Therefore, main principles of this period were supporting peace, cooperative political movements, gaining diplomatic prestige and protecting borders.
Last period was the Post-Atatürk Period. The founder of the Turkish Republic and the Republican People’s Party, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk died in 1938. His friend and old prime minister of the Turkish Republic, Ismet Inönü elected as president and then, national leader. This period was ended in 1945 because one year later, under the leadership of the Republican People’s Party delegates Adnan Menderes, Fuad Köprülü, Celal Bayar and Refik Koraltan, the Democratic Party was founded and the Single Party Period became Multi Party Period[64].
The main event of this period was the Second World War. The Turkish Republic’s policy was to improve relations with the western states but, war danger and aggressive policies of the Axis Forces, affected the Turkish foreign policy. During this period, Ismet Inönü took all the responsibility of the state and adopted neutrality policy with combining the Ottoman Empire’s balance policy and Atatürk’s peace policy. The Turkish Republic signed treaties and agreements with the other states but, avoided joining into the war but, when they understood that, Germany was failed, they wanted to improve relations with the Allied Powers but, the Allied Powers left the Turkish Republic and ended relations with them, when the Turkish Republic rejected their call many times. As a result of the Allied Powers attitude, the Turkish Republic declared war against Germany and Japan. The Single Part Period ended with the establishment of the Democratic Party and Republican People’s Party lost majority in 1950 elections and after 27 years, the Republican People’s Party became opposition party[65].
Mert Can Uzunoğlu
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